These researchers proffered that the closer the fuel item burning was to the wall surface, the sharper the contrast and angle to the lines of demarcation and the more likely the damage would resemble a V in shape. Consequently, Kirk can be credited as the first person to describe the damage by a fire as a geometric shape. However, Schroeders study did not produce an effective means for implementing this method into a scene inspection. Paper presented at InterFlam99. Attributing a fundamental interpretation to an observation, specifically one that ties the underlying physics to an observation, is a major key to accurately determining the true fire scenario and area of origin. Use of damage in fire investigation: a review of fire patterns analysis, research and future direction. Lines of demarcation are the borders defining the differences in certain heat and smoke effects of the fire on various materials. There are several effects that may occur to gypsum wallboard when exposed to heat and fire conditions, including: color changes, soot deposition, charred paper, paper consumed and clean burn (Fig. Floor patterns were found lacking in many of the fire pattern tests where the compartment transitioned to a fully involved state (Shanley et al. Open Access This article is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0), which permits use, duplication, adaptation, distribution, and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons license, and indicate if changes were made. Consumption is a function of heat transfer and the material properties. Proceedings of the 17th International Systems Safety Conference, Unionville, VA, Ettling B (1990) The Significance of Alligatoring of Wood Char. While much of the research was based more on the tenability limits and associated dynamics in under-ventilated fires, they reported on a few forensic-based conclusions. %%EOF magnitude of damage, type of fire effect, color, texture) and are in close proximity to each other. 7, 8 and 9). Cox discussed the importance of separating data and the interpretation of that data when discussing this new method. He lists causal factors for this white area of damage as possibly hose stream wash, surface paper burned off leaving a clean noncombustible surface behind, or the wall may have been surfaced differently prior to the fire (i.e. 923, Tinsley A, Gorbett G (2013) Fire Investigation Origin Determination Survey. 2013). The tool used constant force springs to ensure an even, consistent pressure is applied at all times regardless of the user. Fire investigators have used geometric shapes, such as truncated cones, triangular, columnar, conical, v-shaped, u-shaped and hourglass-shaped patterns since the early 1940s (Rethoret 1945). National Fire Protection Association, Quincy (USA), NFPA (2001) NFPA 921-Guide for Fire and Explosion Investigation. Mealy et al. The constant force is applied to the tool by two 3.3lb constant force springs. Anderson5146. Schroeder later confirmed this assessment by performing a variety of constant heat flux and duration exposure tests on an assortment of wood samples in an attempt to determine if wood could be reliably evaluated by the fire investigator for intensity and duration (Schroeder 1999). SFPE Handbook of Fire Protection Engineers, NFPA, MA, Wieczorek C, Vandsburger U, Floyd J (2004) An evaluation of the global equivalence ratio concept for compartment fires: data analysis methods. In essence this shows that fire investigators were trained to identify the greatest area of damage and that this would be the area of origin. Journal of Testing and Evaluation 40. doi:10.1520/JTE104261, Madrzykowski D, Kerber S (2009) Fire Fighting Tactics under Wind Driven Conditions: Laboratory Experiments. The lack of damage has often times been overlooked in most discussions related to fire patterns. Sides that are wider at the bottom and slope upward to the center of the hole are from below (NFPA 2014). sill height (0.812m). These results support the use of standardized processes to decrease the variability in data collection and interpretation. The literature was received from different databases, primarily ScienceDirect (2012), International Symposium on Fire Investigations conference proceedings, Fire and Arson Investigator-Journal for the International Association of Arson Investigators and fire investigation textbooks. One of the 11 NWCG categories of fire pattern indicators. The fire investigators observations are simply assessing the varying DOFD. Investigators use the varying heights and direction of the lines of demarcation as indicative of directional flow. Kirk continues the discussion by cautioning the investigator that this pattern will be altered by the presence of obstructions, or of readily burned fuel in localized areas, and he warns that a very common complication arises when areas of excellent ventilation are present where intense burns will be noted in such areas that may well distract the investigator from following the fire pattern back to its point of origin (Kirk 1969). 2013). The authors stated that fire leaves its fingerprints and that each finger of flame leaves its effects and the study of these effects will help you pick the spot where it burned first (Straeter and Crawford 1955). Investigations Institute, Florida (USA), Gorbett G, Hicks W, Tinsley A (2013) Fire patterns with low heat release rate initial fuels. There are numerous factors that may influence how a material is affected by heat and exposure to incomplete combustion products (e.g. The correct word is nadir, but to remain consistent with these texts apex will be used. In fuel-controlled fires, the greatest damage within the compartment is typically found near fuel item(s) or fuel package(s) that have undergone combustion. However, Kirk also identifies many of the very common complications that can arise, which will distract the investigator from following the fire pattern back to its point of origin (Kirk 1969). The objective of this paper is to review the work that has been done to observe or measure varying damage along compartment and content surfaces, identify fire patterns, identify causal factors for the fire patterns and apply this information within a process to identify an area of origin, as well as identify gaps and propose new approaches. 2009). In March of 1997 four full-size compartment test fires were conducted in furnished bedrooms (Milke and Hill 1997). The visible appearance of wallboard has been utilized in all fire pattern studies available, even though only a few studies exist that focus on the baseline characteristics of the varying degree of heating and resulting DOFD (Madrzykowski and Fleischmann 2012; Hicks et al. Engineering Guide, Society of Fire Protection Engineers, Maryland (USA), Shanley J, Alletto W, Corry R, Herndon J, Kennedy P, Ward J (1997) The United States Fire Administration (USFA) Program for the Study of Fire Patterns. The compartment can reach a state of full-room involvement without transitioning through flashover, or become ventilation-limited and never achieve full-room involvement state (Francis and Chen 2012). Fire research station, Fire Research Note No. Obviously this misconception was widespread as Kirk identified that it was not uncommon for the investigator to assign the cause to the use of a flammable liquid (Kirk 1969). Figure 1 is a schematic representation of how such a pattern is created, and Figure 2 shows a triangle-shaped pattern produced by a test fire. (1997) noted that the effect of ventilation was the one factor least understood and that ventilation-generated patterns were identified to be of great magnitude, sometimes greater than that of the patterns caused by the plume or origin. NFPA, Quincy, MA, pp 3.1253.133, Quintiere J, McCaffrey B (1980) The Burning of Wood and Plastic Cribs in an Enclosure. The fires that are located at the extremes of the spectrum (i.e. Conversely, as the smoke moves away from the room of origin the temperatures will decrease, which causes the smoke to descend within the compartment causing lighter soot to deposit across the entire elevation of wall surfaces. Additional file 1 outlining the variables for all experimental tests reviewed has been developed and also provided. Abib A, Jaluria Y (1992a) Turbulent penetrative and recirculating flow in a compartment fire. (2013) developed a constant force depth of calcination tool to eliminate inconsistencies in depth of calcination measurements to provide a more practical application of the tool based on the Ngu (2004) and Mealy (2013) studies. Other areas of science regularly deal with inverse problems typically through extensive mathematical study. As the effects of ventilation have been shown to significantly influence damage within the compartment, a further review of these concepts is necessary. The majority of the experimental work has been conducted in small, residential-sized compartments with one or two ventilation openings. bAH$?6 Additional researchers and texts disavowed the use of this visible observation and its connection to the speed of fire (Cooke and Ide 1985; Ettling 1990; NFPA 1992). Director, Fire Investigation Specialist. Comparing Delichatsioss (1984) simple correlation of flame height for wall fires to the average damage height identified in Madrzykowskis study shows that the calculated flame height under-predicted the damage height by approximately 711% for the natural gas burner and gasoline fires. The ventilation of the compartment for suppression is a common activity by fire department personnel, typically performed by opening doors and windows. Incident heat flux to wall, floor, or ceiling surfaces is dependent on the HRR of the fuel and standoff distance between the flame plume and the surface of interest. In the fire investigation profession, testing to determine whether the first burning object can ignite a secondary object is paramount to hypothesis testing of an area of origin. For example, many materials must reach certain temperatures to melt, deform, or fail. Drysdale (2011) indicates that the average compartment temperatures are highest near the cross over between fuel-controlled and ventilation-controlled. Shanley et al. Fire Safety Journal 11:5375, London (UK), Beyler C (2009) Analysis of the Fire Investigation Methods and Procedures Used in the Criminal Arson Cases Against Ernest Ray Willis and Cameron Todd Willingham. These geometric shapes are still currently used within the profession, however, many of the myths associated with their interpretations have fallen into disrepute. 2009; Gorbett 2010; Gorbett et al. Absent the testimony of reliable eyewitnesses to or recording of the fires inception, the investigator is required to determine the origin by observation and expert interpretation of the physical evidence (e.g. Photograph of a Conical-Shaped Fire Pattern along a concrete block wall (fire origin was located under the stack of wooden pallets-fire test conducted at EKU by author). National Institute of Standards and Technology, NIST-GCR-98-756, Gaithersburg, MD, Donegan H (2008) Decision Analysis. Fire Safety Journal 51:4252, Gorbett G (2015) Development and Assessment of a Decision Support Framework for Enhancing the Forensic Analysis and Interpretation of Fire Patterns. This misconception was dispelled in the first edition of NFPA 921 and is not prevalent within the current profession (Bieber 2014). No studies have been conducted specifically to evaluate these patterns, however, some characteristics of these patterns have been identified in other fire pattern studies. Fire and Arson Investigator Journal of the International Association of Arson Investigators 2:8082, Crofton, MD, Heskestad G (1982) Engineering relations for fire plumes. CRC Press, Boca Raton (USA), Madrzykowski D, Fleischmann C (2012) Fire Pattern Repeatability: A Study in Repeatability. Fire pattern was first used to describe how the fire developed or had traveled as described by Kirk, every fire forms a pattern that is determined chiefly by the configuration of the environment and the availability of combustible material (Kirk 1969). Department of Justice, USA, Milke J, Hill S (1997) Full-scale room fire experiments conducted at the University of Maryland. 1997). Of course, apex is actually the antonym of the word desired here. Scientific evidence is always incomplete to some degree, which means there is a measure of uncertainty associated within each analysis. National Research Council, Washington, D.C. (USA), Oullette J (2008) ATF FRL Fire Test Report 3589, 3593, 3595. This was the first time that a distinction was drawn between damage caused by the fire (fire effects) and clusters of fire effects that may have characteristics that assist the fire investigator (fire patterns). 1 and 2). The focus of his process was similar to the others in describing that the area of origin will be located at the greatest area of damage and the investigators should focus on identifying the low burn damage areas and using conical shapes. 15 and Table2). The use of depth of char and relating this depth to duration of burning has fluctuated as to its usefulness in fire investigations since the mid-1950s. Fire Safety Science-Proceedings of the 1st International Symposium, New York, NY, pp 129139, Taroni F, Bozza S, Aitken C (2005) Decision analysis in forensic science. This study also developed a simplified grid system out of tent pole stakes to decrease scene processing time. Gorbett, G.E., Meacham, B.J., Wood, C.B. The fundamental items within the definition that may assist in better defining the term fire pattern is that patterns are something that happens in regular and repeated ways with characteristic features. Gregory E Gorbett. In the mid-1980s there began a trend in the literature that spoke out against this misconception and began to provide a list of alternative explanations of damage to the floor (DeHaan 1983; Taylor 1985; Taylor 1986; DeHaan 1987; Eaton 1987; Wood et al. Glossary Tag: WFISC PMS412 Part of Two tests were completed with television sets placed on a wood stand next to an upholstered chair. The other difficulty for forensic scientists investigating fires is that the observations of damage after the fire may often times be independent of the path taken by the fire making it difficult to identify where the fire started. The resulting damage appears to be angled lines of demarcation with the lower end of the line of demarcation being nearest the source of the smoke flow (Fig. The varying DOFD discussed in NFPA 921 is consistent with the findings from the existing studies (Schroeder 1999; Hicks et al. They are examples only, not models. Once the investigators have narrowed down a 100 square foot section of burned area as the starting point, they bring out the fine-toothed combs. Smoke contains particulates, liquid aerosols and gases (NFPA 2014). The pointer theory was proffered as a system of determining the point of origin of a fire by tracing its path back to its sourcethe system is based on the fact that fires normally travel by feeding on flammables. 1997). long lines of damage appearing to spread the fire from one location to another). There was no significant damage identified around the window ventilation, as the researchers discussed that this vent served primarily as an outflow for the heated gases, while the doorway served as the inflow due to the location of the neutral plane. There are four logical components to the literature review presented: The first part of the review describes the work completed for establishing a degree of fire damage assessment for commonly encountered materials in structure fires. Saddle burn. [5] The shape of the curve reflects the variability of general intuitional availability.This means once intuition levels increase but also s/he can make more higher order intuitive connections/understandings given a corresponding increase in expertise. Their study noted that clean burn areas were observed on wall surfaces under windows that had opened during the fire and that the damage extended from the sill of the window to the floor. However, most of these documents also cautioned against relying solely on the use of visible observations and encouraged the investigator to take samples of fire debris for analysis. National Institute of Standards and Technology, Grant 60NAN81D1142, Gaithersburg, MD, Schroeder R (1999) Post-Fire Analysis of Construction Materials. In ventilation-controlled conditions, cue 1 was the most positively identified in 82% of the studies (37/45), cue 2 was identified in 73% of the studies (33/45), cue 4 was identified in 64% of the studies (29/45), cue 6 was identified in 62% of the studies (28/45), cue 3 was identified in 53% of the studies (24/45), and cue 5 was only identified in 11% of the studies. The effects that remain after a fire are typically related to the damage resulting from the cumulative heat flux received by an exposed material. However, the authors did not propose a working prototype. Prominent forensic scientist, Paul Kirk (1969), wrote in support of using depth of char for fire investigation in the following, variations in depth of the char will inevitably be notedand that this feature of the fire is of primary importance. It was reported, many of the investigators had difficulty finding the location of the point of origin, in many cases indicating the opposite side of the room (Custer and Wright 1984). A pattern requires that the degree of damage between varying materials and along the same material reflect a similar intensity/duration of exposure to the byproducts of combustion. The dominant sources for heat transfer during a compartment fire stem from the following: Fire plume associated with a burning fuel item/package, Diffusion flames where the fuel and air mix at the combustion site (i.e. NUREG-0492, Von Winterfeldt D, Edwards W (1986) Decision Analysis and Behavioral Research. Fire Safety Science 10:641654, Riahi S, Beyler C, Hartman J (2013) Wall smoke deposition from a hot smoke layer. This is of particular concern with respect to the importance of being able to identify and properly weigh potentially subtle differences from one fire scene to the next, some of which could have significant bearing on the development of the fire and the interpretation of the evidence. Therefore, no systematic scale for the degree of damage had been proposed or adopted. The origin of both fires was located under the window in the sofa, but different accelerants were used to start each test fire with 2-gallons of gasoline in test 1 and scattered newspaper in test 2. (1997)) reported one of the driving factors for the lack of a plume-generated fire pattern associated with the origin in a chair was due to the chair being placed approximately 18-inches away from the wall. 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